Mistaken Assumptions

White fear and anger over the Ghost Dance focused on one Indian, Sitting Bull, Sioux chief and medicine man who had been the last to surrender to the Army and accept government authority.  It was actually Sitting Bull who was skeptical of the Ghost Dance, but he refused to intervene to stop it either.  Ironically the Indian agents believed that he had set off the Ghost Dance frenzy that they so feared, and wanted him arrested for it.

Major General Nelson Miles ordered his arrest in December 1890 along with that of Big Foot, a leader at the Cheyenne River Reservation.  On December 15th the Indian police seized Sitting Bull but a fight broke out.  In the fight six policemen, six Sioux, and Sitting Bull were killed.

After Sitting Bull's death, some 400 Sioux fled south to the Cheyenne River Reservation.  Most of them surrendered at Fort Bennett but the rest (about 38 in all) took refuge with Big Foot.  The Army kept close watch on Big Foot and because of the intense surveillance, he took his people, along with the remaining Sioux and fled to the Pine Ridge Reservation in the Dakota Badlands.

The Army pursued the fleeing Indians with several cavalry units and caught up with them within a few miles.  They arrested Big Foot and gave him a military escort upon his request to a place they camped 20 miles outside of Pine Ridge Reservation, called Wounded Knee.

Next time...a wild shot
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Today in Pioneer History:  "On March 22, 1765, hoping to raise sufficient funds to defend the vast new American territories won from the French in the Seven Years’ War, the British government passes the notorious Stamp Act.   The legislation levied a direct tax on all materials printed for commercial and legal use in the colonies, and helped plant seeds for a far larger movement against the British government and the eventual battle for independence.

Bullet Proof Garments

The Ghost Dance, promising that all whites would disappear and all Indians be reborn to eternal life, spread across the western reservations.  When it reached the Dakota Sioux in 1890, they took to wearing "ghost shirts" painted with magical symbols that would turn away the bullets of any gun that attacked them. 

As the movement spread through Pine Ridge, Standing Rock, Cheyenne River and Rosebud Reservations, the Indian agents grew more and more suspicious.  A peaceful ritual that needed bullet proof garments?  The Ghost Dance seemed to be an obstacle to the white man's program to assimilate and civilize the Indian more that it was anything else.

A kind of religious frenzy developed with many Sioux abandoning their daily tasks, emptying out the schools, spending day and night dancing and chanting to the Ghost Dance.  Agents started saying  Indians were acting crazy and wild, dancing in the snow.  They asked for immediate protection and troops were send to Pine Ridge and Rosebud Reservations to stand ready to assist.

Valentine McGillycuddy (remember him?) saw the Ghost Dance differently.  He saw it as a harmless expression.  As a former Indian agent dispatched by the U.S. government to assess the situation, he recommended patience, allowing the dances to continue.  "The troops have frightened the Indians.  If the Mormons prepare for the second coming of their Christ, the U.S. Army is not put in motion to prevent them.  Why should the Indians not have the same privilege?" 

Few listened to McGillycuddy's warning, "If the troops remain, trouble is sure to come."

Next time...Trouble comes
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Today in Pioneer History: "On March 19, 1864, Charles Marion Russell, one of the greatest artists of the American West  in St. Louis.  During long, often tedious days watching over cattle on the open range, Russell sketched the scenes around him. In the winter, when many cowboys were unemployed, Russell lived in various frontier towns and painted pictures to pay for his food and lodging. Friends said Russell also began carrying modeling clay with him during this time, making small sculptures during his spare moments.

The Murder of Crazy Horse

One of the greatest warriors of the northern plains, Crazy Horse, was still unaccounted for after the Battle at Cedar Creek.  Sitting Bull had fled with some of his warriors into Canada, but Crazy Horse was not with them.  The ambitious Col.  Miles, with 350 infantrymen, decided to go after Crazy Horse.  On January 8, 1877,  he found the Sioux war leader and some 500 Cheyenne and Sioux followers on the snowy cliffs of Wolf Mountain in Montana.  The Indians were caught between a blizzard and the artillery fire of Miles' troops.  They had no chance.

The defeat at Wolf Mountain disheartened the Indian warriors and in the spring, more than 1.000 Sioux and Cheyenne came into the Indian agencies to surrender.  In May, Crazy Horse himself surrendered at the Red Cloud Agency, but even then he was seen as a potential threat by the Army and the Indian peace faction.  Crazy Horse was ordered arrested and disarmed, and on September 7 he was killed (murdered) in a scuffle with his captors.  Thus, a little more than a year after Custer's defeat, the Indians' power in the northern plains was effectively broken. That was the point, wasn't it?


Although the epic struggle had captured the attention of the public, two other campaigns of that time were equally dramatic.  One was the retreat of the Nez Perces (Pierced Noses) under their legendary leader Joseph, the other the last ditch effort  of the Modocs in the Northwest. 

Next time...The Fighting Retreat of the Nez Perces

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Today in Pioneer History: "On February 1,  1884, the first portion, or fascicle, of the Oxford English Dictionary (OED), considered the most comprehensive and accurate dictionary of the English language, is published.

Dignity Not Included

It was America's 100 year anniversary but the nation was in a sober mood.  The defeat and death of Custer at Little Bighorn put a damper on the celebrations.  To the public, Custer had been the dashing Indian-fighting hero of the West.  The victorious Indians found their victory celebrations brief as well as nearly 1000 northern Cheyenne on their way to join Sioux chief Crazy Horse, were beaten back in July 1876 by Col. Wesley Merritt and the 5th Cavalry at a place called War Bonner Creek.  The defeated Cheyenne turned back to the Red Cloud Agency and ended their campaign.

The Army was too large now and cumbersome to chase the scattered tribes so they took measures to control the Indians instead.  On October 23, Red Cloud and his warriors were forced to disarm their camp at the Red Cloud Agency.  To add to their humiliation, General Crook told Red Cloud the United States no longer recognized him as a Sioux chief.  The army seized all the Indians arms and their ponies as well.  The ponies were later sold to buy cows for the Indians instead.

Congress decided to force the Sioux to give up the Black Hills and if they refused, they would no longer get any food.  Surprisingly, a few chiefs signed the treaty, despite the terms, including giving up all hunting rights outside the new reservation area.  Many Indians remained defiant.  Crook planned a winter campaign to "finish off the Indians."  In late October 1876 Col. Nelson Miles succeeded in tracking down Sitting Bull and his Sioux warriors at Cedar Creek in Montana.  Two day later, 2000 Sioux surrendered, but Sitting Bull escaped into Canada. 



Next time...Another great warrior's end
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Today in Pioneer History:  "On January 29, 1861, Kansas, deeply divided over the issue of slavery, was granted statehood as a free state in a gesture of support for Kansas’ militant anti-slavery forces, which had been in armed conflict with pro-slavery groups since Kansas became a territory in 1854.

After Fort Kearny - A Momentary Peace

Fresh army troops on the Bozeman Trail didn't intimidate the Sioux.  In June 1867, Red Cloud felt strong enough to try an attack on Fort Kearny.  With over 1000 warriors, they rode toward the fort.  Along the way they encountered a 36 man army work detail under Captain James Powell.  The army men were armed, fearing such an attack, and 32 of the men made it to shelter behind wagon boxes.  For four and one half hours, they fought on until reinforcements arrived.  The "Wagon Box Fight" as it was called, took place on August 2nd, after which Red Cloud decided to postpone the attack on Fort Kearny.

As it turned out, the attack never happened as growing opinions in Washington wanted to abandon Bozeman Trail.  The coming of the railroad made it unnecessary.  Red Cloud was willing to talk peace only if the government agreed to leave the outposts in Sioux country.  The government yielded and in spring of 1868 the forts were ordered abandoned.  Red Cloud burned Fort Kearny to the ground.

In November, Red Cloud rode to Fort Laramie to sign a peace treaty which gave the Sioux the Black Hills and the right to hunt in the Powder Ridge region.  Both regions would be forbidden to white exploitation.  This seemed satisfactory to both sides...at least for the moment.

By the end of 1868, the Union Pacific Railroad had intruded into Wyoming and new towns were springing up along the tracks.  Six years later, Custer and his 7th Cavalry rode into the Black Hills reportedly to seek a site for a military post, but in reality to check out rumors of gold in the area.  That led to a rush into Indian Territory and once more the treaty signed was worthless. 

In a last effort to protect their lands, the Sioux and a few northern Cheyenne began to gather warriors - for the last stand.  Not only for Custer but for the Indians as well.

Next time...The Last Stand
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Today in Pioneer History:  "On December 18, 1778, the English explorer Captain James Cook becomes the first European to discover the Hawaiian Islands when he sails past the island of Oahu. Two days later, he landed at Waimea on the island of Kauai and named the island group the Sandwich Islands, in honor of John Montague, who was the earl of Sandwich and one his patrons.

Minnesota Sioux Uprising

During the Civil War, Minnesota seemed like the most remote place in the US.  Along the Minnesota River there lived about 6000 Santee, or eastern Sioux on a reservation 150 miles long and 10 miles wide.  Since the 1850s the Sioux, who had traded their ancestral lands and freedom of movement for a government annuity, didn't seem a threat to the white settlers.

Missionaries were congratulating themselves that the Indians were learning farming and Christianity - becoming civilized. Little Crow was even seen in church as the leader of his tribe.  But despite the outward sense of complacency, the Minnesota Sioux had nursed long grudges against the whites.  With  most of the white men away fighting the Civil War, the time had come to settle the score.

It was late summer - a time when most Sioux would be away on buffalo hunting grounds, but this year the government's money hadn't arrived yet and local merchants refused the Sioux credit to outfit them for the hunt.  Following a near starvation  year when the reservation's corn crop failed, refusal of credit without the promised money from the government, meant no buffalo hunt, no food.

A small group of Sioux began arguing among themselves, boasting that they were not afraid of whites, and to prove it they would kill them.  Four Sioux rode up to a farm and challenged the owner to a shooting match.  After the bullets were spent the Sioux attacked and killed three men and two women.  They returned to the reservation and told Little Crow what they had done.  An all-night council followed with most of those present believing there was no better time for war, but Little Crow wasn't so sure.  Finally at dawn on August 18, 1862, the chief agreed.  The young braves were more than ready.

Next time..."Let them eat grass"
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Today in Pioneer History:  "On November 30, 1886,  the Folies Bergère in Paris introduces an elaborate revue featuring women in sensational costumes. Once a hall for operettas, pantomime, political meetings, and vaudeville, the highly popular “Place aux Jeunes” established the Folies as the premier nightspot in Paris.

After the Gold Rush...

Once the Sioux Confederacy lost the Black Hills, life was said to be safer.  Steamboats ran again to Fargo and relations with the Indians had relaxed so much that photos exist of groups of Indian and settlers boys having snowballs fights in Fargo.

After the gold rush was over, the Black Hills became famous for hunting grounds...how ironic.  Makes you wonder why the Indians and settlers couldn't have peacefully lived together and why they had to destroy each other to keep the hunting ground?

This author happens to think that the white man was wrong to strip the lands of the Native Americans in pursuit of wealth, but that is a story for another time.  

Off to the Big Sky Country...next time.

The "Legend" of General George Custer

General George Armstrong Custer's legend is romantic, glamorous, dashing and mostly arrogant and selfish.
He has one objective - a great decisive victory over the Indians.  Had he lived a long life, perhaps his legend would have more reality into his character which was ruthless and insubordinate when his own goals didn't match his superiors.  He and his entire Calvary never saw that great victory, due to his single-minded and stubborn belief that he was above any authority when it came to Indians.

In 1867, he had his first experience with the Indians in Kansas where he pursued the Sioux and Cheyenne without any orders to do so. Originally ordered to set up a fort at Sturgis, SD, once that that was done, Custer set off on his own after the Indians without any orders.

Custer had a bad reputation among Indians already by invading Indian villages and killing most of them and sending the rest off to prison. For what it is not known...He was thought to have premonitions about his own death and history records it all at the battle of Little Big Horn (called Greasy Grass by the Indians) along with all his men.

His death was sent by smoke signals as far away as Montana and was said "his grave marked a Sioux high point" Somehow Custer was given full West Point honors.

Next time...the towns of the Gold Rush.